Thyroid and iodine-deficiency

(See also above under Immune system and deficiency, Obesity)

Worldwide some 200 million people are estimated to suffer under-active thyroid (hypothyroidism) which at any age may disturb regulation in almost any tissue in the body.

Common symptoms are tiredness, weight gain, constipation, aches, dry skin, lifeless hair and feeling cold. Seagreens® are a source of all the micronutrients involved in regulating and stabilizing the endocrine system of which the thyroid is a critical part. Therefore they are also an excellent source of natural, stable, chelated iodine with the full balance of the other nutrientslike selenium required for its metabolism. Within the thyroid, iodine combines with other nutrients to produce triiodinine (T3 - 3 atoms of iodine) and thyroxine (T4 - 4 atoms of iodine) (9). Artificial replacements of these thyroid hormones are available but ‘override’ the thyroid, rather than revitalise it.

Regular intake of Seagreens® Food Capsules and/or Food Granules may help to regulate thyroid activity and assist wider hormonal balance. The organic iodine in Seagreens® Food Capsules is not excessive at about 390µg per gram and surplus to bodily requirement is readily excreted which may not be the case with synthetic formulations.

The position was clearly elaborated in Foods Matter magazine (222).: The thyroid is one of the family of glands (called the endocrine system) that controls hormone production. In descending order (from the top of the head) they are the pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the pituitary (all within the brain), the thyroid (in the neck), the adrenals and pancreas (just below the stomach) and the ovaries and testes. The main function of the thyroid is to regulate the release of energy within the cells - so too much of the thyroid hormones will cause an excess of energy, and vice versa.

There are four thyroid hormones. First, T4 (thyroxine) which is really only a way of storing energy until it is needed. To produce energy, T4 is converted with the help of enzymes into T3 which actually gets into the cells and produces energy. If the thyroid cannot produce enough T3 then no function, physical or mental, can operate at full efficiency (typical for ME sufferers). There are many causes of thyroid malfunction including prolonged or recurrent high levels of stress, genetic failure, autoimmune disorders like glandular fever, trauma, poor liver function, micro-malnutrition, serious infections, the impact of environmental toxins like pesticides, mercury and flouride, and electromagnetic radiation. 

THYROID TESTS: Before the development of the TSH blood test (thyroid stimulating hormone), diagnosis was based on family history, observation of symptoms and measuring body temperature (the basal blood test). TSH is released by the pituitary which instructs the thyroid to convert more T4 into T3. Normal levels of TSH are deemed to run from 0.15 micro units per millilitre (mu/L) to a maximum 6 mu/L (The NHS uses a range 0.3-4.2). The pituitary releases more TSH if the level of T4 (thyroxine) in the blood is low , to try and stimulate the thyroid gland to make more T4 and thereby more T3.

A raised level of TSH and a low level of T4 indicates an under-active thyroid or hypothyroidism. An over-active thyroid is hyperthyroidism which causes bodily functions (mtabolism) to speed up.

It is possible to measure T4 and T3 in the blood, and conventional endocrinologists maiontain that these measurments taken together are sufficient to dedect an underactive thyroid. But a minority of specialists in the UK and USA mainntain that measuring TSH, T$ and T3 in the blood is not sufficient. They recommend testing urine and saliva to deduce the amount of T3 and T4 which has actually been used over a 24-hour period, which may produce very different results from stndard blood tests. The NHS in the UK “no longer do biochemical assays for Reverse T3, which some practitioners believe is essential.

A naturopath writes: “I do not know how to treat hypothyroidism effectively without reference to Reverse T3 (rT3) levels. The major cause of Reverse T3 dominance is prolonged stress which results in high levels of cortisol, the main hormone released by the adrenal glands in resonse to stress.

Eleveated cortisol inhibits conversion of T4 to T3, reduc ing active T3 levels. T4 is instead converted to Reverse T3, an inactive form of T3 (triiodothyronine).

Reverse T3 dominance may persist even when stress levels settle down and cortisol levels return to normal. This is because T3 continues to inhibit the conversion of T4 to T3, perpetuating production of the inactive T3 hormone. Reverse T3 has the same molecular structure as T3 but is its mirror image and fits into the cellular receptor upside down, preventing the active T3 from binding to the receptor site, so prolonging its adverse effect even when no longer being converted from T4. Conventional blood tests measure T3 but do not distinguish between T3 and Reverse T3. T3 levels may appear normal but a significant part of that may be the inactive form giving a false diagnosis of thyroid gland activity” (223).

Specialists can be located with the British Thyroid Association (www.british-thyroid-association.org).
Specialist Dr B. Durrant Peatfield 01474-815793 (info@drpeatfield.com) recommends the Red Apple Clinic for tests on 01633-262772 (www.redappleclinic.co.uk)

Seagreens® contain all the nutrients required to feed the endocrine system including the thyroid. Although iodine is often thought to be the most important factor, equally the balance of micronutrients involved in the delicate metabolic processes which feed the thyroid is critical. Other nutrient deficiencies may be the cause of many hypo- and hyper-thyroid problems. Nutrients critical to thyroid health are iodine, selenium, tyrosine, zinc, copper, vitamins A, B2, B3, B6 and C - all of which are present in an ideal natural balance in Seagreens®. Deficiencies in the trace elements selenium and copper (and many others) are common especially where farming practices do not replenish soil levels of these micronutrients. Some biodynamic and organic food has been shown to contain better nutrient levels but this can only be where the soil has been improved.

The thyroid affects every cell in the body, regulating cell metabolism like a thermostat. Low function doesn’t produce enough active hormones so the system becomes inert. Thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion is regulated via a negative feedback control system involving the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and the thyroid gland. Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) is secreted by the hypothalamus. TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH.

TSH acts on the thyroid to stimulate the release of T3 and T4 (thyroxin). T3 and T4 act negatively on the anterior pituitary to suppress the release of TSH. The conversion of T4 to T3 depends on adequate amounts of selenium amongst other minerals. Selenium levels can easily be determined by measuring hair samples or RBC levels. We understand from correspondence that patients have been able to reduce or stop thyroxin medication after 3 - 6 months on Seagreens® at 4 Food Capsules per day (twice the micronutrient maintenance intake or 2g Food Granules).

Because the thyroid regulates the burning of calories, weight tends to go up as thyroid function goes down, and vice versa. This may not always be the case because other factors are often involved.

Dr Peter D’Adamo says: “I have also found that (wrack seaweed) is very effective as an aid to weight control for Type Os - especially those who suffer thyroid dysfunctions. The fucose in bladderwrack (fucus species) seems to normalize the sluggish metabolic rate and produce weight loss” (3).

In cases of overweight, and particularly in stubborn cases and in obesity, it is vital that weight reduction and detoxification be carefully controlled because of their potentially harmful effect on thyroid hormones. Canadian research which started in the late 1990s showed that environmental toxins are attracted to and stored in the body fat cells, and that weight loss without proper detoxification leads to these chemicals being released into the bloodstream.

As blood levels rise, levels of essential thryoid hormones which are necessary to maintain efficient metabolism fall dramatically - a process called adaptive thermogenesis. This leads to a comcomitant reduction in muscle oxidative enzymes which determine how efficiently the muscles use energy, resulting once again in energy being stored as fat. Corresponding cycles may be set up where industrial chemicals which act like hormone disrupters profoundly affect several aspects of metabolism and appetitie control which may lead to obsessive over-eating and further dietary imbalance (115).

Seagreens® Food Capsules and Food Granules may make a significant contribution at high levels for periods of six months or more through their contribution in cleaning out environmental toxins and dissolving fats in the blood; helping restore hormonal balance, particularly in the thyroid; assisting gradual weight regulation, and the overall restoration of homeostasis.

Medical history charts the rise and fall and rise again of iodine’s place in thyroid and hormonal balance and its medical use in general. During the first half of the 20th century and in the old pharmacopeias, the recommendation for iodine supplementation was 12,500µg - 37,500µg (12.5 - 37.5mg) elemental iodine. Iodine was used extensively among British and American physicians for both hypo- and hyperthyroidism (118). But research published in the USA in 1948 may have wrongly attributed the cause of hypothyroidism and goiter to the blocking of thyroid hormone synthesis by excess iodine (116) and may have led to the arbitrary definition of levels for daily iodine supplementation in 1969 of 200µg (0.2mg), where 2000µg (2mg) was deemed to be excessive (117).

This was published against the backdrop of the wholesale introduction of iodized salt as the standard for iodine supplementation in the 1950s, along with chlorine in drinking ater and other political/industrial dietary interventions for the supposed good of the general population. The daily amount of iodide absorbed from iodized salt was 200-500 times less than the amount of iodine/iodide previously recommended widely among physicians in the USA. “The man-made organic forms of iodine are extremely toxic, whereas the inorganic non-radioactive forms are extremely safe...however, the safe inorganic, non-radioactive forms were blamed for the severe side effects of organic iodine-containing drugs” (118).

Despite this confusion, a study of 1,368 patients with fibrocystic disease of the breast published in 1993 reported the beneficial effects of 5mg iodine ingested daily for approximately one year. No adverse affect on the thyroid was observed in some 4,000 patients supplemented with iodine for as long as three years with a daily intake ranging from 12,500µg to 50,000µg (126, 127).

Literature research conducted by Dr Guy Abrahams showed that 60 million Japanese consume a daily average 13,800µg (13.8mg) of elemental iodine, and Japan is one of the world’s healthiest nations based on overall well-being and cancer stastistics (119). “Either the Japanese are mutants, capable of thriving on toxic levels of iodide, or we have been grossly deceived, and the human body needs at least 100 times the RDA, which was established very recently in 1980 and confirmed in 1989” (120).

There is no international agreement on a maximum safe daily intake. World Health Organisation guidelines place a safe maximum daily intake at 1000µg whilst the UK Government adheres to a RDI / RDA (recommended daily intake / allowance) of 150µg over 10 years of age whilst in America this is 200µg. UK Government statistics place the average daily consumption of iodine from ‘an average diet’ at 250µg per day.

The British Health Food Manufacturers Association advises that food supplements should not deliver more than 500µg per day which amounts to about 750µg (0.75mg) per day if the government’s ‘population average daily intake’ is added to the HFMA figure. Few cases of toxicity have been reported in people with intakes of up to 5,000µg (5mg or 0.005g) per day although transient mild effects have been demonstrated in individuals who were previously deficient in iodine. Normal subjects with an intake of 1000-2000µg per day showed increased iodine concentration in the thyroid but no other changes.

In 1991 the UK Government’s Department of Health’s Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy recommended that the safe upper intake should not exceed 1,000µg (1mg) per adult per day over 10 years of age - or 17µg (0.017mg) per kilogram of body weight (121).

“In all species studied the tolerance is high relative to normal dietary iodine intakes, pointing to a wide margin of safety for this element” (12).

The oblation of the thyroid gland in favour of introducing the antiarrhythmic drug Amiodarone (a toxic form of sustained-release iodine) became effective when the body has accumulated approximately 1.5g (1,500,000µg) of iodine - exactly the amount of iodine retained by the human body when iodine sufficiency is achieved following orthoiodosupplementation (120).

“The implication of such observation was that an iodine/iodide-loading test could be developed to assess not just thyroid sufficiency for iodine but requirement of the whole human body for that essential element... To achieve sufficiency within three months, most subjects required 37,500µg - 50,000µg per day (37.5 - 50mg), and some obese and diabetic subjects required even more than 50,000µg per day nto achieve and maintain sufficiency” (122).

Obesity increases the requirement for iodine and up to 100,000µg (100mg) of elemental iodine per day may be required to achieve and maintain sufficiency. Another factor involved in the increased demand for iodine is the presence of excessive amounts of goitrogens from the diet and lifestyle (substances harmful to the thyroid), for example smoking...which interferes with the sodium/iodide symporter function...and flouride...which interferes with the uptake of iodide by the thyroid gland symporter system (and it is suggested that) flouride causes oxidative damage to the halide-binding site of the symporter...and bromide...and potassium perchlorate (which it is suggested may be) in dairy and breast milk (122).

“In patients on thyroid hormones, orthoiodo- supplementation resulted in a decreased requirement to much lower levels of thyroxine and in some cases resulted in the complete discontinuation of this hormone. This decreased requirement for thyroid hormones...was (also) observed in a female patient with total thyroidectomy, suggesting that iodine not only improves thyroid function but also has an effect at the target organ level” (122).

Seagreens® can contribute to normalising metabolism and the hormone system, and as the richest source of inorganic iodine is of special interest in cases of iodine deficiency problems such as hypothyroidism, and to vegans and vegetarians who may intake less than half the RDA.

Specific useful papers include: Iodine intake and iodine deficiency in vegans as assessed by the duplicate-portion technique and urinary iodine excretion, Lightowler and Davies, British Journal of Nutrition (1998), 80, 529-535; Increased risk of iodine deficiency with vegetarian nutrition, Remer, Neubert and Manz, British Journal of Nutrition (1999), 81, 45-49; Are vegetarians an ‘at risk group’ for iodine deficiency?, Davidsson, British Journal of Nutrition (1999), 81, 3-4; The elimination of iodine deficiency in the UK: a story of iodization by default, Phillips, IDD Newsletter, February 1998; Iodine supply in Germany, Meng and Schindler, IDD Newsletter, May 1998; USA examines its iodine nutrition, IDD Newsletter, November 1998; Iodine deficiency in France, Valeix, Zarebska, Preziosi, Galan, Pelletier and Hercberg, The Lancet, Vol 353, May 22, 1999. Useful Website locations include: http://209.10.106.162/nutrition%5Fsupplementation/minerals/Iodine.html;
http://209.10.106.162/nutrition%5Fsupplementation/minerals/index.htm;
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed/; http://www.navigator.tufts.edu/;
http://www.thorne.com/index.html; and http://www.pitt.edu/~cbw/altm.html.

NB. We have quoted at length from Dr Guy Abrahams because he is a credible and still current researcher in this field. Dr Abrahams is a former Professor of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Endocrinology at the UCLA School of Medicine, currently developing assays for the measurement of iodides in biological fluids and orthoiodosupplementation in medical practice.

He has research Awards from Pharmacia, Sweden (1980), the University of Liege, Belgium (1976), and the Canadian Association of Clinical Chemists (1974). He pioneered assays used to measure steroid hormones in biological fluids and nutritional programmes for women with PMT syndrome and post-menopausal osteoporosis, now the most widely used dietary programmes among American obstetricians and gynaecologists.